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A panel beater or panel beaters, is a term used in some countries to describe a person who repairs motor vehicle bodies and motor vehicle chassis back to their factory state after having been damaged in a motor vehicle accident or collision. They do this using many skills such as autobody repairs and metalworking techniques which includes welding and brazing as well as the use of lead and various body putty and spray fillers used for repairing body panels and parts which hide the damage, and this is what we call panel beating. Accident damage repairs may require the panel beater to either repair or replace the various parts of the motor vehicle in question and spraypaint these areas. These parts may be made from various metals including various types of steels and alloys and also many different types of plastics, rubbers, fiberglass and carbon fiber composites.

A panel beater will work on everyday types of motor vehicles such as cars, vans, 4X4 vehicles and trucks. Specialized panel beaters would undertake to repair damage sustained to aero planes and motorcycles and perform custom paint jobs. Panel beaters also work exclusively on restoring old cars and do not take on accident damaged vehicles in for repairs.

A coachbuilder is similar to a panel beater and both trades are today more commonly referred to as panel beating chassis straightening and spray painting due to the wide variety of cars and trucks that require extensive chassis and body repairs. A coachbuilder is a commonly associated with chassis building and therefore requires to be a body builder and repairer as a panel beater. Training to become a panel beater or coachbuilder is done by completing an apprenticeship which usually lasts for a period of four years.

Coach building remained in favour among the upper class who continued the habit of ordering custom built chassis for their motor vehicles. Many coachbuilders closed down, were bought by manufacturers or changed their core business to other activities as a result of an insufficient flow of orders.

Motorhomes are coach-built which means a vehicle which has been custom built for a particular design is a good example of a coach builders purpose.  Panel beaters however are also prone to re-designing and modifying and building up motor vehicles. For example, racing cars are custom built by panel beaters in the panel beaters workshop. It is not only the chassis and body of these vehicles that are built here in the modern day panel beaters workshop, but also the crucial fitment of engine, gearbox, diff and drivelines to make these vehicles run straight.

The panel beater of today has an array of complicated jobs to rectify at each workstation that must be accurately fulfilled. Attention to detail is key in all departments and careful consideration has to paid to the stripping and assembling of each vehicle and all its factory fitted panels, computer aided wiring circuits and other parts before the finished product is rolled into the spray booth for the final spray painting process.

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Engine Fuel Injectors dispense fluid such as petrol and diesel under high pressure which is converted into a high-velocity jet at the throat of the convergent-divergent nozzle which creates a low pressure at that point. The low pressure draws the suction fluid into the convergent-divergent nozzle where it mixes with the motive fluid. The Venturi effect, applies to the operation of this device.

This means, the pressure energy of the inlet motive fluid is converted to kinetic energy in the form of velocity head at the throat of the injectors nozzle. As the mixed fluid then expands in the divergent diffuser, the kinetic energy is converted back to pressure energy at the diffuser outlet. The optimum amount of injected fuel depends on conditions such as engine and ambient temperatures, engine speed and workload, and exhaust gas composition.

Central to an EFI system is a computer called the ECU or Engine Control Unit which monitors engine operating parameters via various sensors strategically placed throughout an engine. The ECU interprets these parameters in order to calculate the appropriate amount of fuel to be injected, among other tasks, and controls engine operation by manipulating fuel and/or air flow as well as other variables.

The electronic fuel injector is normally closed, and opens to inject pressurized fuel as long as electricity is applied to the injector's solenoid coil. The duration of this operation, called the pulse width, is proportional to the amount of fuel desired. The electric pulse may be applied in closely controlled sequence with the valve events on each individual cylinder, or in groups of less than the total number of injectors called a batch fire system.

Since the nature of fuel injection dispenses fuel in discrete amounts, and since the nature of the four-stroke engine has discrete induction events, the ECU calculates fuel in discrete amounts. In a sequential system, the injected fuel mass is tailored for each individual induction event. Every induction event, of every cylinder, of the entire engine, is a separate fuel mass calculation, and each injector receives a unique pulse width based on that cylinder's fuel requirements.

It is necessary to know the mass of air the engine "breathes" during the air flow of each induction event. This is proportional to the intake manifold's air pressure/temperature, which is proportional to throttle position. The amount of air inducted in each intake event is known as "air-charge", and this can be determined using several methods.

The three elemental ingredients for combustion are fuel, air and ignition or “spark”. However, complete combustion can only occur if the air and fuel is present in the exact ratio which allows all the carbon and hydrogen from the fuel to combine with all the oxygen in the air in exact increments or air mass flow. Oxygen sensors monitor the amount of oxygen in the exhaust, and the ECU uses this information to adjust the air-to-fuel ratio in real-time and this is referred to as stoichiometry.

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With the improved fuel injection distribution of modern cars today, less fuel is needed for the same power output. An engine's air/fuel ratio must be precisely controlled under all operating conditions to achieve the desired engine performance, emissions, driveability, and fuel economy expected. Modern electronic fuel-injection systems meter fuel very accurately, and use closed loop fuel injection system based on a variety of feedback signals from an oxygen sensor, a mass airflow, a throttle position TPS, and at least one sensor on the crankshaft and or camshaft to monitor the engine's rotational position for each cycle. An engine's air/fuel ratio must be precisely controlled under all operating conditions to achieve the desired engine performance.

Fuel injection generally increases engine fuel efficiency. The primary difference between carburetors and fuel injection is that fuel injection atomizes the fuel by forcibly pumping it through a small nozzle under high pressure, while a carburetor relies on suction created by intake air rushing through a venturi to draw the fuel into the airstream. A fuel-injected engine often produces more power than an equivalent carbureted engine. A multipoint fuel injection system generally delivers a more accurate and equal mass of fuel to each cylinder than can a carburetor, thus improving the cylinder-to-cylinder distribution. Fuel injection alone does not necessarily increase an engine's maximum potential output. Increased airflow is needed to burn more fuel, which in turn releases more energy and produces more power.

One of the first commercial petrol injection systems was a mechanical system developed by Bosch. This was basically a high pressure diesel direct-injection pump with an intake throttle valve set up. This system used a normal gasoline fuel pump, to provide fuel to a mechanically driven injection pump, which had separate plungers per injector to deliver a very high injection pressure directly into the combustion chambers of the cylinder head.

Operational benefits to the driver of a fuel-injected car include smoother engine response during quick throttle transitions, easier and more dependable engine starting, better operation at extremely high or low temperatures, increased maintenance intervals, and increased fuel efficiency.

Fuel injection systems can react rapidly to changing inputs such as sudden throttle movements, and are able to control the amount of fuel injected to match the engine's needs on demand across a wide range of operating conditions such as engine load, air temperature, engine temperature, fuel octane level, and atmospheric pressure which all contribute to the synchronization of the fuel injection set up.

Exhaust emissions are cleaner because the more precise and accurate fuel metering reduces the concentration of toxic combustion byproducts leaving the engine, and because exhaust cleanup devices such as the catalytic converter can be optimized to operate more efficiently.

When cylinder-to-cylinder distribution is less than ideal, as is always the case to some degree with a carburetor or throttle body fuel injection, some cylinders receive excess fuel as a side effect of ensuring that all cylinders receive sufficient fuel. Rich-running cylinders are undesirable from the standpoint of exhaust emissions, fuel efficiency, engine wear, and engine oil contamination and injectors should be services periodically.

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The brakes are the mechanical devices which inhibits motion and is responsible for stopping a brake disc or drum part of a vehicles braking system. Its opposite component is a clutch which moves a vehicle forward. Frictional brakes are most common and can be divided into "shoe brake" or "pad brake" types, using an explicit wear surface. Friction brakes that are shoe or pad brakes mostly incorporate rotating devices with a stationary pad and a rotating wear surface such as the brake drum or brake rotor or brake disc as commonly referred to. Most motor vehicles have brake shoes that work in conjunction with a rotating drum with shoes that expand to rub the inside of a drum, called a "drum brake". Brake pads that pinch a rotating disc are commonly called a "disc brake". A disc brake includes the assistance of a brake caliper which is hydraulically operated, forcing a piston or pistons to close a set of brake pads onto either side of a brake rotor.

Most commonly brakes use friction to convert kinetic energy into heat, though other methods of energy conversion may be employed. For example regenerative braking converts much of the energy to electrical energy, which may be stored for later use. Brake systems also use magnetic fields to convert kinetic energy into electric current in the brake disc which is converted into heat. Still other braking methods even transform kinetic energy into different forms, for example by transferring the energy to a rotating flywheel.

Brakes are generally applied to rotating axles or wheels of a vehicle, but may also take other forms such as the surface of a moving fluid which can be flaps deployed into water or air. Some vehicles use a combination of braking mechanisms, such as drag racing cars with both wheel brakes and a parachute.

Friction brakes on automobiles store braking heat in the drum braking or disc brake while braking then conduct it to the air gradually. When traveling downhill some vehicles can use their use their engine brake to act as a braking system.

When the brake pedal of a modern vehicle with hydraulic brakes is pushed, ultimately a piston pushes the brake pad against the brake disc which slows the wheel down. On the brake drum it is similar as the cylinder pushes the brake shoes against the drum which also slows the wheel down.

Most modern vehicles use a vacuum assisted brake system that greatly increases the force applied to the vehicle's brakes. This additional force is supplied by the intake manifold vacuum of the running engine of the motor vehicle. This force is greatly reduced when the engine is running at full throttle, as the available vacuum is diminished and where brakes are rarely applied at wide open throttle where the driver takes his foot off the gas pedal and moves it to the brake pedal.

Brakes are the lifeline of any motor vehicle and are designed to stop a vehicle and its cargo at varying speeds. Brakes and relative components should be checked for defects and serviced at regular intervals by a professional brake technician or brake expert.

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